Why was the Roman Colosseum Built? The Untold Story.

The Flavian Amphitheater: Motives, Realities, and the Legacy of an Imperial Symbol

The Flavian Amphitheater, universally known as the Colosseum, stands in the heart of Rome as a monumental testament to the engineering, power, and social complexity of Ancient Rome. However, its construction was not merely an architectural whim, but a direct response to a profound political and social crisis that threatened to unravel the Empire. To understand the motives behind its construction, one must delve into the turbulent context of the 1st century A.D. and unravel the historical facts, popular legends, and myths that surround it.

I. The Origin of a Masterpiece: From Political Chaos to the Legitimation of Power

Nero's Legacy and the "Year of the Four Emperors" (69 A.D.)

The death of Emperor Nero in June of 68 A.D. marked the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and triggered an unprecedented period of political chaos. The Roman Empire was left without a clear successor, which precipitated a civil war that saw four emperors—Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian—rise and fall in a single year. This "Year of the Four Emperors" (69 A.D.) was much more than a simple power struggle; it was the manifestation of a collapse in imperial legitimacy. Power no longer resided in lineage or the authority of the Senate, but in the loyalty of the legions.

The brief reign of Galba, the first of the four, was a clear example of this instability. His unpopularity was due in part to his inability to win the favor of the army and the people. By considering lavish spectacles, such as gladiator fights, a "waste," Galba stopped allocating money for them, which caused great discontent among the citizens of Rome. This leadership vacuum and the urgent need to restore order and confidence in the Empire became the backdrop for the rise of the figure who would change the course of history.

Vespasian and the Foundation of the Flavian Dynasty

It was in this climate of anarchy that Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus, a general with no noble ancestry from the Flavian family, rose to power. Vespasian was proclaimed emperor by his legions in the provinces of Egypt and Judea, and his ascent to the throne in 69 A.D. marked the beginning of the Flavian dynasty. His legitimacy was not based on lineage, but on his military merits and his ability to restore peace. To solidify his position, Vespasian undertook an ambitious political and ideological program. He presented himself as the restorer of imperial order and legality, an heir to the tradition of Augustus, and his political party spread "gospels" or "good news" about his arrival to power. This propaganda campaign, which even used prophecies and miracles to demonstrate his divine favor, was a sophisticated attempt to consolidate his authority and restore the people's trust in a stable government.

An Architectural Message: The Amphitheater over Nero's Lake

The choice of location for the construction of the great amphitheater was not an accident, but a political and symbolic declaration of immense magnitude. The Colosseum was built on the land that had been occupied by Nero's

Domus Aurea , a vast and extravagant palatial complex that covered nearly 50 hectares in the heart of Rome. The Domus Aurea, with its ivory ceilings, circular rooms that rotated, and a huge artificial lake in the center, was considered a symbol of Nero's despotism and private appropriation of public spaces.

By building a public amphitheater for the people right where Nero had built a private palace for his own enjoyment, Vespasian sent a clear message of political reconciliation and the reaffirmation of imperial power in service to the citizenry. This maneuver not only reconfigured the use of urban space but also physically erased the tyrant's legacy, demonstrating that the new Flavian dynasty had restored order and returned Rome to its people. The work became a monument to the justice and generosity of the dynasty, serving as a fundamental pillar in its legitimation program.

II. The Mechanics of Construction and its Financing

Dates and Chronology

The construction of the Colosseum, officially known as the Flavian Amphitheater, began under Emperor Vespasian between the years 70 and 72 A.D. Although Vespasian died in 79 A.D. and could not see it finished, his son and successor, Emperor Titus, completed the work and inaugurated it in 80 A.D. with celebrations that lasted one hundred days. The project was continued and embellished by Titus's younger brother, Domitian, which makes this gigantic amphitheater a collective work of the Flavian dynasty.

To contextualize the construction effort and the dynasty's vision, the following table details the chronology of the Flavian emperors and the key dates of the amphitheater:

Table 1: Flavian and Amphitheater Chronology

EmperorReignKey Colosseum EventDate Vespasian69 - 79 A.D.

Start of the construction of the Flavian Amphitheater

70-72 A.D.Titus79 - 81 A.D.

Completion and inauguration with 100 days of games

80 A.D.Domitian81 - 96 A.D.

New modifications and improvements

During his reign

Funding: The Spoils of the Jewish War

The finances of the Roman state, exhausted by Nero's reign, required a massive source of income for a project of this scale. The funding came, in large part, from the

spoils of war obtained after the brutal repression of the First Jewish-Roman War (66-73 A.D.). Vespasian and his son Titus led the campaign that culminated in the conquest of Jerusalem and the destruction of its Temple in 70 A.D.

The gold, silver, treasures, and other valuables looted from the Temple of Jerusalem were used to finance the ambitious construction projects of the Flavian dynasty, including the Amphitheater. This direct link between imperial violence in the provinces and the construction of a monument of entertainment in the metropolis is a clear example of the Roman war economy. The Colosseum was, in essence, a monument paid for with "blood money," which linked the wealth obtained through violence with the policy of social control and power legitimation at the center of the Empire.

Labor and Prisoners of War

In addition to funding, the labor for the construction of the Colosseum was also obtained from Roman military victories. It is estimated that between 12,000 and 20,000 Jewish prisoners of war were brought to Rome to work on the building of the amphitheater, enduring exhausting work and harsh conditions. The use of prisoners of war not only provided cheap labor but was another element in the Empire's propaganda campaign. The same individuals who had risen against Rome were now forced to build the greatest symbol of its power. This symbolic humiliation was a brutal reminder of the fate of those who dared to challenge imperial authority.

III. The Amphitheater as an Instrument of Social Control and Cohesion

Panem et Circenses: The Purpose of the Spectacles

The Colosseum was designed to host a wide variety of public spectacles that served as the main means of entertainment for Roman citizens. These events, known as the policy of " panem et circenses " (bread and circuses), were carefully planned to keep the population entertained and loyal to the government. They provided mass entertainment, demonstrated Rome's absolute power over life and death, and reinforced social hierarchies by seating spectators according to their social class, from the emperor to the slaves. Beyond entertainment, these games were a demonstration of imperial control and a way of affirming law and order before a crowd that, by witnessing the punishments and violence, indirectly participated in the affirmation of the emperor's power.

Types of Spectacles

The Flavian Amphitheater was not limited to a single type of entertainment but offered a varied program for the delight of the crowds:

• Munera Gladiatoria: Gladiator combats were the most emblematic event. Professional fighters, prisoners, or slaves faced each other to the death—or at least with a high probability of death—in carefully choreographed duels.
• Venationes: The hunting of wild animals, brought from the ends of the Empire, was a brutal and popular spectacle. Lions, tigers, bears, hippos, and rhinoceroses were pitted against each other or hunted by the "venatores". The number of animals that died in these games is astonishing, with estimates exceeding one million.
• Public Executions: These often took place at midday and were disguised as reenactments of tragic myths, where those condemned to death assumed the roles of mythical heroes for their execution. They served as lessons in imperial justice and punishment for crimes against the state.
• Naumachiae (Naval Battles): Although their use in the Colosseum is a subject of historical debate, it is known that simulated naval battles were a type of spectacle performed in ancient Rome. It is said that the arena was flooded for the inauguration of the Colosseum under Titus, although later physical evidence casts doubt on the frequency of these events.

For greater clarity, the following table details the function and participants of the different types of spectacles:

Table 2: The Colosseum and its Spectacles

Type of SpectacleParticipantsSocial and Political Function Munera Gladiatoria

Gladiators (slaves, prisoners, free men)

Demonstration of honor, courage, and control over life and death. Venationes

Exotic animals and venatores (hunters)

Display of the Empire's power and control over nature and conquered territories.Public Executions

Prisoners and those condemned to death

Warning and reaffirmation of imperial justice and law. Naumachiae

Condemned men, shallow draft boats

Exhibition of Roman engineering and reenactment of naval victories.

IV. Historical Debate and the Deconstruction of Popular Myths

The history of the Colosseum is interwoven with a series of myths and popular beliefs that often obscure historical reality. Below, some of the most widespread are examined, contrasting them with the available evidence.

Naval Battles (Naumachiae): Myth or Reality?

The idea that the Colosseum was regularly flooded to reenact naval battles is one of the most powerful images in popular culture. While it is a documented fact that

naumachiae existed in Ancient Rome and were held in dedicated basins , the evidence for their performance in the Colosseum is much more ambiguous. Ancient sources, such as Cassius Dio, mention that the arena could be flooded quickly, which suggests that these spectacles were staged. However, the later construction of the

hypogeum —the complex system of underground tunnels and cages—under Emperor Domitian would have made the regular flooding of the arena logistically impossible.

Experts debate whether these events were only held once or twice during the Colosseum's inauguration, before the hypogeum was complete, or if they were smaller-scale reenactments with shallow-draft boats. This is a clear example of how popular imagination has amplified a rare and complex event into a myth of common occurrence.

The Martyrdom of Christians: Reality or Hollywood Legend?

The image of the Colosseum as a slaughterhouse for Christians, devoured by lions and used as "human torches" , has been immortalized by literature and cinema. Historians confirm that Christians were persecuted and executed in circuses and amphitheaters throughout the Empire, with specific cases such as that of Ignatius of Antioch, who was condemned to be killed by wild beasts in Rome during the reign of Emperor Trajan. However, the current academic consensus qualifies the narrative of a massive and regular martyrdom in the Colosseum.

Systematic state-level persecutions, such as those by Nero or Diocletian, did not occur with the frequency or scale often believed. The total number of victims in three centuries of persecution was a few thousand , which makes it unlikely that the Colosseum was a primary site for large-scale massacres. The idea of the Colosseum as an "altar of martyrdom" was cemented in later Christian tradition and narrative, especially when the Church consecrated it in the 18th century as a holy place in honor of the martyrs. The historical reality is more nuanced than the powerful legend that has endured through time.

Myths and Realities about Gladiators

The fascination with gladiators has given rise to a series of myths that have become better known than historical reality. The idea that all gladiators were slaves who fought to the death is a simplification. While the majority were slaves, prisoners, or criminals, there were also free men who voluntarily joined the

ludus (gladiator schools) in search of fame, fortune, or glory. The mortality rate in combat was not as high as believed, estimated at just over 10%. The public valued courage and dedication, and a defeated gladiator who had fought bravely could be pardoned. Finally, the emperor's famous gesture of deciding life or death with a thumb up or down is a modern invention popularized by cinema, as there is no evidence that this gesture had that meaning in antiquity.

Table 3: Debunking the Colosseum

Popular MythHistorical RealitySource/Explanation

The Colosseum was regularly filled with water for naval battles.

Naumachiae in the Colosseum were rare and limited-scale events. Their frequency was impossible after the construction of the hypogeum .

It was the main site of massive Christian martyrdom.

Although Christian executions took place, the scale of the deaths is debated. The narrative of massive martyrdom is a later construction.

All gladiators were slaves who always fought to the death.

There were also free men, and the mortality rate was relatively low (~10%).

The gladiator's life or death was decided with a thumb up or down.

The meaning of this gesture is a modern myth and has no basis in Roman sources.

V. The Colosseum Through the Centuries: From Fortress to Cultural Symbol

Decline and Reuse

After the end of the games in late antiquity, the function of the Colosseum changed dramatically. Gladiator combats ceased around 404 A.D. and animal hunts in 523 A.D., largely due to the growing influence of Christianity. After the fall of the Empire, the Colosseum was not simply abandoned; it adapted to the needs of medieval society. It became a cemetery, a commercial quarter, a church, a private fortress for powerful families like the Frangipani, and even a housing complex. Its reuse as a quarry, from which stones were extracted for the construction of churches and palaces, including the Vatican, symbolizes the transfer of power from the pagan Empire to the Christian Church.

Medieval Legends

The transformation of the Colosseum over the centuries gave rise to countless popular legends. The name "Colosseum" became popular in the Middle Ages, probably due to its proximity to the "Colossus of Nero," a gigantic bronze statue more than 30 meters high that stood near the amphitheater. The monument, in its ruined state, inspired other stories, such as the belief that it was a place frequented by witches who collected herbs with supposed magical properties, having grown in soil "impregnated with blood and suffering." These mystical narratives reflect how, even in its decay, the Colosseum continued to fascinate and inspire the popular imagination, transforming from a center of power into a place of myths.

VI. Conclusions: The Complex Legacy of the Colosseum

The history of the Colosseum is a tapestry of overlapping realities and perceptions. Its construction was motivated by a profound political crisis, serving as a bold declaration of power by a new dynasty seeking legitimacy. The funding, from the spoils of a brutal war, and the labor, drawn from prisoners, reveal the dark side of imperial ambition. Its function as a center for spectacles was an essential instrument of social control, keeping the people entertained and under the watchful eye of the central power.

Over time, the Colosseum's function was reinvented, adapting from an imperial amphitheater to a fortress, a quarry, and finally, a historical monument. At the same time, popular legends and myths about naval battles, martyrdoms, and gladiators were superimposed on the documented history, transforming the perception of the monument. The Flavian Amphitheater, with its legacy of innovation and brutality, of adaptation and plunder, of facts and fantasies, stands today not only as a symbol of Roman greatness but as a reminder of the complex and often contradictory nature of human history. Today, the monument is an emblem of civilization's capacity to create and preserve its legacy, and a universal monument against capital punishment. Its history, with all its nuances, is much deeper than the simple sum of its parts.